J Bacteriol 2006, 188:8178–8188.PubMedCrossRef 31. Kimura Y, Ohtani M, Takegawa K: An adenylyl cyclase, CyaB, acts as an osmosensor in Myxococcus xanthus . J Bacteriol 2005, 187:3593–3598.PubMedCrossRef 32. Nagarajan

T, Vanderleyden J, Tripathi AK: Identification of salt stress inducible genes that control cell envelope related functions in Azospirillum brasilense Sp7. Mol Genet Genomics 2007, 278:43–51.PubMedCrossRef 33. Zhang YX, Denoya CD, Skinner DD, Fedechko RW, McArthur HA, Morgenstern MR, Davies RA, Lobo S, Reynolds KA, Hutchinson CR: Genes encoding acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (AcdH) homologues from Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces avermitilis provide insights into the metabolism of small branched-chain fatty acids and macrolide antibiotic production. Microbiology 1999, 145:2323–2334.PubMed 34. Mikami K, Murata N: Membrane fluidity and the perception of

environmental signals in cyanobacteria and plants. click here Prog Lipid Res 2003, 42:527–543.PubMedCrossRef 35. Suparak S, Kespichayawattana W, buy 4SC-202 Haque A, Easton A, Damnin S, Lertmemongkolchai G, Bancroft GJ, Korbsrisate S: Multinucleated giant cell formation and apoptosis in infected host cells is mediated by Burkholderia pseudomallei type III secretion protein BipB. J Bacteriol 2005, 187:6556–6560.PubMedCrossRef 36. Moore RA, Reckseidler-Zenteno S, Kim H, Nierman W, Yu Y, Tuanyok A, Warawa J, DeShazer D, Woods DE: Contribution of gene loss to the pathogenic evolution of Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei . Infect Immun 2004, 72:4172–4187.PubMedCrossRef oxyclozanide 37. Korbsrisate S, Vanaporn M, Kerdsuk

P, Kespichayawattana W, Vattanaviboon P, Kiatpapan P, Lertmemongkolchai G: The Burkholderia pseudomallei RpoE (AlgU) operon is involved in environmental stress tolerance and biofilm formation. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2005, 252:243–249.PubMedCrossRef 38. Wu W, check details Badrane H, Arora S, Baker HV, Jin S: MucA-mediated coordination of type III secretion and alginate synthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa . J Bacteriol 2004, 186:7575–7585.PubMedCrossRef 39. Emerson JE, Stabler RA, Wren BW, Fairweather NF: Microarray analysis of the transcriptional responses of Clostridium difficile to environmental and antibiotic stress. J Med Microbiol 2008, 57:757–764.PubMedCrossRef Authors’ contributions PP and SK designed the research. PP and ES prepared the DNA/RNA samples for microarray and RT-PCR experiments. PP, RAS and JC carried out the microarray experiment and analysis. JMS performed the Western blotting. PP and VM carried out the invasion assay. PP, JC and SK wrote the manuscript. MPS and BWW critically revised the manuscript for its important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.”
“Background Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is the causal agent of bacterial leaf blight in rice.

Thus, in the case of a semiconductor with a parabolic dispersion (for GaAs QD), the dependence of the energy of electron-positron pair on QD sizes is proportional to (r 0 is QD radius), whereas this dependence is

violated in the case of Kane’s Torin 2 in vivo dispersion law (for InSb QD). Moreover, in a spherical QD, accounting of nonparabolicity of dispersion removes the degeneracy of the energy in the orbital quantum number; in a circular QD, in the magnetic quantum number. As it is known, the degeneracy in the orbital quantum number is a result of the hidden symmetry of the Coulomb problem [48]. From this point of view, the lifting of degeneracy is a consequence of lowering symmetry of the problem, which in turn is a consequence of the reduction of the symmetry of the dispersion law of the CC but not a reduction of the geometric symmetry. This results from the narrow-gap semiconductor InSb bands interaction. In other words, with the selection of specific materials, for example,

GaAs or InSb, it is possible to decrease the degree of ‘internal’ symmetry of the sample without changing the external shape, which fundamentally changes the physical properties of the structure. Note also that maintaining twofold degeneracy in the magnetic quantum number www.selleckchem.com/products/etomoxir-na-salt.html in cases of both dispersion laws is a consequence of retaining geometric symmetry. On the other hand, accounting

of nonparabolicity combined with a decrease in the dimensionality of the sample leads to a stronger expression of the sample internal symmetry reduction. Thus, in the 2D case, the energy of Ps atom with Kane’s dispersion law becomes imaginary. In other words, 2D Ps atom in InSb is unstable. The opposite picture is observed in the case of a parabolic dispersion law. In this case, the Ps binding energy increases Amylase up to four times, which in turn should inevitably lead to an increase in a Ps lifetime. It means that it is possible to control the duration of the existence of an electron-positron pair by varying the material, dimension, and SQ. Figure 2 shows the dependences of the ground- and first excited-state energies of the electron-positron pair in a spherical QD on the QD radius in the strong SQ regime. Numerical calculations are made for the QD consisting of InSb with the following parameters: , , E g  ≃ 0.23 eV, κ = 17.8, a p  ≃ 103Å, , and α 0 ≃ 0.123. As it is seen from the figure, at the small values of QD radius, the behavior of curves corresponding to the cases of parabolic and Kane’s dispersion laws selleck chemicals llc significantly differ from each other. The energies of both cases decrease with the increase in QD radius and practically merge as a result of decreasing the SQ influence.

For facultative anaerobic bacteria like Salmonella, Escherichia, Vibrio or Listeria, specific tumor colonization has been described and different therapeutic approaches

were investigated [4, 8–11]. In general, virulence-attenuated Gram-positive bacterial pathogens, such as Listeria monocytogenes, may be better suited for the systemic application of bacteria in tumor therapy as these bacteria lack the LPS of gram-negative bacteria. LPS may induce strong Selleck PF-3084014 immune reactions culminating in septic shock after release into the blood stream. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) has been successfully studied as carrier for the delivery of DNA and RNA into mammalian cells [12, 13]. HDAC inhibitor In this case pathogenicity of the listerial carrier strain was attenuated by the deletion of aroA [14]. In contrast to most other applied virulence-attenuated Lm strains [10, 15, 16], the aroA mutant possesses all virulence factors, thus enabling the carrier bacteria to invade mammalian cells, escape from the phagosome, and replicate in the cytosol of infected host cells. The intracellular replication rate of the aroA mutant was, however, lower compared to the according wild-type strain and the capability of cell-to-cell spread was drastically reduced [14]. The cytosolic life cycle of Lm poses an advantage for the delivery of nucleic acids harboring eukaryotic expression cassettes compared to other intracellular bacteria like Salmonella, which reside and

replicate in phagosomal compartments. The utilization of Lm as a carrier for the direct selleck screening library delivery of prodrug-converting-enzymes and for the introduction of DNA encoding these enzymes into tumor cells in vitro was successfully assessed recently [17]. Internalization of Lm into non-phagocytic mammalian cells is mainly triggered by the two internalins A and B encoded by the inlAB operon [reviewed in 18]. The deletion of inlAB thus strongly Galeterone reduces the ability of Lm to actively invade such host cells, but does not change their passive uptake by phagocytic cells. The targeting of carrier microorganisms to cell

surface proteins of specific cells was first performed in viral gene therapy [19]. By genetic fusion of Staphylococcus aureus protein A (SPA) to viral coat proteins monoclonal antibodies recognizing specific receptors on the target cells were fixed to the viral surface. Due to the thereby achieved specific virus/cell interaction, uptake of the viral carrier by the selected target cells could be obtained. Alternatively, single chain antibody fragments (scFv) were expressed on the viral surface which – by the interaction with specific receptors on the host cell surface – led to preferential viral infection of the specific target cells as well. Many tumor cells overexpress specific marker proteins on their surface which include oncoproteins. HER1 (ErbB1) and HER2 (ErbB2), members of the EGFR/HER family, represent such prominent surface proteins [20, 21].

Mol Microbiol 2002, 45 (1) : 17–29.PubMedCrossRef 28. Woldringh C, Nanninga N: Structural and physical aspects of bacterial chromosome segregation. J Struct Biol 2006, 156 (2) : 273–283.PubMedCrossRef 29.

STA-9090 purchase Funnell B: The P1 plasmid partition complex at parS. The influence of Escherichia coli integration host factor and of substrate topology. J Biol Chem 1991, 266 (22) : 14328–14337.PubMed 30. Bouet KU-57788 concentration J, Bouvier M, Lane D: Concerted action of plasmid maintenance functions: partition complexes create a requirement for dimer resolution. Mol Microbiol 2006, 62 (5) : 1447–1459.PubMedCrossRef 31. Datsenko K, Wanner B: One-step inactivation of chromosomal genes in Escherichia coli K-12 using PCR products. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA

2000, 97 (12) : 6640–6645.PubMedCrossRef Authors’ contributions JCM performed most experiments (strain construction and microscopy), analysed the data and wrote an early version of the paper. RM performed early experiments (strain construction and microscopy) and analysed the data. MS performed the experiments in Additional file, Figure S5 (strain construction and microscopy). CP constructed some of the strains. JYB constructed some of the strains, designed, analysed and interpreted the experiments, and wrote the paper. FC designed, analysed and interpreted the experiments, and wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Identifying mechanisms of pathogen transmission, including potential environmental sources, is critical to control disease [1]. Molecular epidemiology integrates conventional epidemiological approaches with p38 protein kinase molecular techniques to track specific strains of pathogens in order to understand the distribution of pathogens in populations and environments [2]. This can be used to elucidate inter- and

intra-specific transmission pathways and environmental risk factors, from individual to population, and from local to broader spatial scales. The genus Mycobacterium comprises over 70 species and several subspecies. Over 30 of these can cause disease in livestock, wildlife and humans, occurring worldwide. Mycobacterial diseases such as bovine tuberculosis (bTB) have become a major sanitary and conservation problem even in relatively unmanaged natural areas across the world. Similar to other shared diseases, O-methylated flavonoid the existence of wildlife reservoirs is limiting the effectiveness of eradication schemes in livestock [3, 4]. In bTB, known risk factors for wild ungulates include age, gender, density, spatial aggregation, intra and inter-specific contact, fencing and other habitat features as well as genetic factors [5–12]. However, most data derive from large scale studies [e. g. [3, 13–18]], while detailed information at small spatial scales is still very scarce (in ungulates [19–24], in possums Trichosurus vulpecula [25, 26]), and usually, fine associations with spatial and environmental factors are not addressed.

2006; Hartvigsen et al. 2004; Steenstra et al. 2005; Woods 2005), and a lack of research focus specifically on work social support; for example, of the eight recent reviews (GANT61 ic50 Bongers et al. 2006; Hartvigsen et al. 2004; Steenstra et al. 2005; Woods 2005; Waddell and Burton 2001; Hoogendoorn et al. 2000; Kuijer et al. 2006; BIX 1294 concentration Lakke et al. 2009), only one review (Woods 2005) solely considered

work support issues using qualitative methodology. The objective of this systematic review is to describe the evidence of employment-related social support on the risk of occurrence of a new episode of back pain and on the influence of employment-related support on prognosis once someone has back pain (e.g. recovery, return to work status). Furthermore, by way of a critical evidence synthesis, this review will address some current difficulties reported by previous reviews. This will be done by (1) stratification of evidence by study outcome (e.g. risk or prognosis), (2) stratification by type of support (e.g. co-worker, supervisor, general support), (3) critical assessment of the evidence based on the adequacy of the measure of employment

social support and other key components of the included studies (e.g. response rate, attrition rate, geographic location, type of employment, sample size, sophistication of the analysis, length of follow up time, assessment of LBP). Methods This review uses a systematic approach to identify and synthesise research on employment social support (e.g. general level of support at work, level of supervisor support, level of co-worker support) within back pain populations. Smad inhibitor Search strategy The following computerised

databases were searched from their respective inception dates up to 18 November 2011: MEDLINE, Embase, PsychINFO, CINAHL, IBSS, AMED and BNI. Reference lists of the studies and current relevant reviews were checked for additional study citations. Validated measures of social support were also citation checked using the ISI Web of Science citation mapping system, and databases of local experts were consulted for information on additional research studies. Inclusion criteria Articles were included if they had a focus on Oxaprozin LBP populations (e.g. search term keywords: Back Pain, Low Back Pain), measured employment social support (e.g. search term keywords: Social Support, Social Interaction, Occupational Health Services, Employment Support, Employment Based Support), and provided data for the role of employment social support on risk of occurrence of LBP or prognosis with LBP outcomes such as pain intensity, disability or associated prognostic factors (search term keywords: Risk factors, Prospective, Epidemiologic Studies, Cohort studies, Case–Control Studies). The search terms (“Appendix 1”) were used as key words and also exploded to include all lower level headings (e.g. Mesh terms within MEDLINE).

CCCP was used as positive control because it is an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation and reduces mitochondrial membrane potential by directly

attacking the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial www.selleckchem.com/products/ITF2357(Givinostat).html membrane [12, 40]. Amastigotes treated with parthenolide presented severe plasma membrane and mitochondrial damage, suggesting an autophagic process [39]. Treatment with parthenolide induced shedding of the membranes into the flagellar pocket, appearing as concentric membranes and suggesting intense exocytic activity because this site is where endocytosis and exocytosis occur in trypanosomatids. Treatment of promastigote forms of L. amazonensis with edelfosine

GDC 0449 for 1 day [41] and parthenolide for 3 days [10] also led to the appearance of a large number of vesicles inside the flagellar pocket, suggesting a process of exacerbated protein production by cells as they attempt to survive. Other studies indicated that the plasma membrane of human promyelocytic leukemic HL-60 cells appears to be one of the targets of parthenolide because its integrity is lost very early during cell death, reflected by atypical apoptosis and primary necrosis (i.e., lysis of the membrane) [42]. The lipid spin probe 5-DSA was incorporated into the plasmatic membrane of Leishmania in the usual way, and the EPR spectra obtained were typical for cell membranes. selleckchem Interestingly, the spectra of the Leishmania membrane were very similar nearly to those for the same spin label in erythrocyte membranes [43]. The erythrocyte membrane of spin-labeled lipids has been well characterized by EPR spectroscopy and is considered to have certain rigidity, particularly because of its high content of protein and cholesterol. The presence of sesquiterpene parthenolide significantly increased the rigidity of the membrane of Leishmania when applied to the cell suspension at a ratio of 3 × 109 parthenolide molecules/cell. Parthenolide

also showed dose-dependent anti-Leishmania activity against the amastigote form. The IC50 was 1.3 μM parthenolide/ml for a cell concentration of 1 × 106 cell/ml. Therefore, the effect of parthenolide against the amastigote forms of Leishmania was observed at a ratio of 7.8 × 108 parthenolide molecules/cell. The greatest change in membrane fluidity was observed at a concentration 3.8-fold higher than for growth inhibition. Membrane stiffness, assessed by EPR spectroscopy of the spin label, has been associated with lipid peroxidation [44, 45]. A detailed study of the interaction between parthenolide and membranes and their role as a pro-oxidant in simpler systems is necessary to determine whether the membrane rigidity observed here was attributable to lipid peroxidation.

ALA has documented efficacy in treatment of diabetic neuropathy [17], where it reduces pain and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy [18, 19] and improves nerve conduction [13, 20]. Recent studies have shown that ALA also reduces pain, paresthesia, and numbness in patients with compressive radiculopathy syndrome BMS345541 supplier from disc–nerve root conflict [21] and other types of neuropathies, such as carpal tunnel syndrome [22]. In addition, combination treatment with ALA and γ-linolenic acid within a rehabilitation program for 6 weeks reduced sensory symptoms and neuropathic pain in patients with compressive radiculopathy syndrome from disc–nerve root conflict, compared

with patients undergoing a rehabilitation

program alone for 6 weeks [23, 24]. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is one of the most important antioxidant enzymes, being responsible for neutralization of superoxide, the free radical occurring in the cellular respiration. SOD is endowed with a powerful anti-inflammatory action due to its antioxidant property and direct action on neutrophils, inducing their apoptosis; thus, SOD has a key role in inhibiting the inflammatory response, which is closely correlated with attenuation of hyperalgesia [25]. Furthermore, SOD inhibits biosynthesis of some principal inflammatory cytokines and avoids apoptosis of nerves [26]. Since during inflammation—SU5402 ic50 whether acute or chronic—endogenous SOD is not buy STA-9090 sufficient to completely neutralize oxygen free radicals, dietary supplementation of SOD has been investigated in some diseases, such as arthritis [27], and it has been shown that orally administered SOD not only has antioxidant activity but also works as an effective nerve protector [28, 29]. With this background Farnesyltransferase in mind, our attention was captured by a marketed combination of ALA 600 mg and SOD 140 IU and, therefore, we aimed to investigate its efficacy on sensory symptoms and neuropathic pain in patients

with CNP, when added to a standard rehabilitation program (physiotherapy), compared with the rehabilitation program alone. We hypothesized that the proposed multimodal approach would improve most of the clinical parameters and that it would be more effective than physiotherapy alone. 2 Patients and Methods In accordance with a prospective, randomized, open study design, patients were screened between March 2010 and April 2011 in the Rehabilitation Unit of the Department of Surgical and Oncological Sciences at the University Policlinic in Palermo, Italy. All participants were recruited from consecutive new patients presenting to an interventional pain management practice with CNP. Patients with a history of chronic function-limiting neck pain lasting at least 3 months were included in the study.

Appl Phys Lett 2012, 100:https://www.selleckchem.com/products/CP-673451.html 243101.CrossRef 42. Binet F, Duboz JY, Rosencher E, Scholz F, Härle V: Mechanisms of recombination in GaN photodetectors. Appl Phys Lett 1996, 69:1202.CrossRef 43. Jie J, Zhang W, Bello I, Lee CS, Lee ST: One-dimensional II–VI nanostructures: synthesis, properties and optoelectronic applications. Nano Today 2010, 5:313–336.CrossRef 44. Jiang

Y, Zhang WJ, Jie JS, Meng XM, Fan X, Lee ST: Photoresponse properties of CdSe single-nanoribbon photodetectors. Adv Funct Mater 2007, 17:1795–1800.CrossRef 45. Li QH, Gao T, Selleckchem OICR-9429 Wang YG, Wang TH: Adsorption and desorption of oxygen probed from ZnO nanowire films by photocurrent measurements. Appl Phys Lett 2005, 86:123117.CrossRef 46. Wu JM, Chen YR, Lin YH: Rapidly synthesized ZnO nanowires by ultraviolet decomposition process in ambient air for flexible selleck chemicals llc photodetector. Nanoscale 2011, 3:1053–1058.CrossRef 47. Hasan K, Alvil NH, Lu J, Nur O, Willander M: Single nanowire-based UV photodetectors for fast switching. Nanoscale Res Lett 2011, 6:348.CrossRef 48. Zhang J, Chen R, Xu X, Li D, Sun H, Xiong Q:

Synthesis and optical properties of II–VI 1D nanostructures. Nanoscale 2012, 4:1422.CrossRef 49. Li C, Bando Y, Liao M, Koide Y, Golberg D: Visible-blind deep-ultraviolet Schottky photodetector with a photocurrent gain based on individual Zn 2 GeO 4 nanowire. Appl Phys Lett 2010, 97:161102.CrossRef 50. Das SN, Moon KJ, Kar JP, Choi JH, Xiong J, Lee TI, Myoung JM: ZnO single nanowire-based UV detectors. Appl Phys Lett 2010, 97:022103.CrossRef 51. Hu Y, Zhou J, Yeh PH, Li Z, Wei TY, Wang ZL: Supersensitive, fast-response nanowire sensors by using Schottky contacts. Adv Mater 2010, 22:3327–3332.CrossRef Competing

interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions CHK wrote the manuscript and performed all the experiments and the data analysis. SJL and JMW provided the information and organized the final version of the paper. WCC has produced the FET device. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background The optical properties derived MG-132 datasheet from nanostructured metallo-dielectric composites have attracted worldwide attention both from experimental and theoretical aspects [1–3]. The absorption spectrum of metallic nanoparticles could be attributed to surface plasmon resonance (SPR), i.e., collective oscillations of conduction electrons driven by the incident light field. The SPR frequency depends strongly on the metal composition, structure (solid, hollow, and core shell), size and shape, the dielectric properties of the surrounding medium, and inter-nanoparticle coupling interactions [4–11].

A. niger IBT 28144 grew vigorously under these conditions (Figure 1). Mycelium was observed 20 hours after inoculation and biomass accumulated within 70 hours. Aerial hyphae, the first sign of onset of conidiation, were observed PF-6463922 molecular weight already after 24 hours. Figure 1 Growth and conidium production. Growth measured as biomass production (mg dry weigth/cm2) and conidium production (log conidia/cm2) by A. niger IBT

28144 on medium containing 3% starch. Average values ± standard deviations (n = 3-6). To measure the production of secondary metabolites we used a modified version of a micro-scale extraction procedure [29] that is suitable for detection of a wide array of metabolites. Using plug sampling, the amount of secondary metabolites was determined per surface area of the culture including both metabolites within the cells and metabolites diffusing into the medium. Using this method we detected the following metabolites produced by A. niger on starch-containing medium; fumonisin B2, fumonisin B4, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin alpha, malformin

A, malformin C, orlandin, desmethylkotanin, kotanin, aurasperone B, pyranonigrin A and tensidol B. Presence of lactate, which may be encountered in environments with fermenting microorganisms and especially in fermented food products, was found to increase FB2 production considerably when supplied in tandem with starch. The FB2 levels detected on media with 3% starch plus 3% MK-4827 in vitro CB-5083 lactate were 2-3 times higher than the levels on 3% starch. Thalidomide The differences were significant (95% confidence) at the samplings 66, 92 and 118 hours after inoculation (Figure 2). The stimulating effect of lactate on FB2 production seemed to be proportional to the concentration of lactate as 3% starch plus 1.5% lactate resulted in levels intermediate of those containing 3% starch and either no lactate or 3% lactate. Fumonisin B4, orlandin, desmethylkotanin

and pyranonigrin A were regulated like FB2 but only during the later growth phase (Figure 3). Especially the level of the polyketide orlandin was increased synergistically by the combination of starch and lactate. Orlandin, desmethylkotanin and kotanin have very similar polyketide structures and are expected to be part of the same biosynthesis pathway [30], but kotanin was not influenced in the same way as orlandin and desmethylkotanin by presence of starch and lactate. The differential influence of starch and lactate on production of the 12 measured metabolites indicates that secondary metabolism of A. niger is not restricted to a common regulation under these conditions.

In this context, S. Typhi represents an intermediate step between obligate bacterial parasites and free living bacteria, exhibiting some genome erosion directed to inactivate and lose detrimental or non-essential functions for their environment (i.e. host) [40]. Thus, we hypothesized that the loss of some of these genes contributed to the adaptation of S. Typhi to the systemic infection. Our results suggest that the loss of the fully functional SseJ protein in S. Typhi contributed to the adaptation to the systemic infection by increasing bacterial cytotoxicity in epithelial cells. The increased

cytotoxicity presented by S. Typhi compared with S. www.selleckchem.com/products/rg-7112.html Typhimurium is not only selleck related to the loss of functions, as we showed here with the sseJ pseudogene; but also to the acquisition of new functions. It has been reported that S. Typhi presents a pathogenicity island (named SPI-18) that harbours hlyE. The hlyE gene encodes a cytolysin that has proved to be cytotoxic toward different cell types [41–43]. SPI-18 is shared by other Salmonella enterica Saracatinib serovars

that have been shown to cause systemic infections in humans, but is absent from S. Typhimurium [41]. In addition, the functional transfer of the S. Typhi hlyE gene to S. Typhimurium promotes deep organ infection in mice [41]. All this evidence suggests that S. Typhi has been selected for an increased cytotoxicity inside its host in order to perform a successful systemic infection. Thus, an increased cytotoxicity toward the epithelial barrier may guarantee the Venetoclax development of a deeper infection and

a decreased retention inside epithelial cells at the bacterial entry point. On the other hand, the presence of the sseJ STM gene in S. Typhi significantly enhances the retention time within epithelial cells and/or the intracellular proliferation as we showed in Figure 6 in agreement with previous reports that indicate that SseJ enzymatic activity contributes to intracellular replication in host tissues [31, 38]. Accordingly, it is possible that the sseJ loss of function was selected in S. Typhi in order to promote a decreased retention/proliferation of bacteria inside the eukaryotic cells. It is known that the intracellular proliferation is essential for the virulence of S. Typhimurium [44]. Nevertheless, recent studies revealed that the magnitude of the CD8+ T cell response correlates directly to the intracellular proliferation in Salmonella enterica, showing that a reduced intracellular proliferation limits antigen presentation and development of a rapid CD8+ T cell response, indicating that reduced intracellular proliferation of virulent pathogens may be an important mechanism of immune evasion. [45].