These have helped the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of MDD. As discussed above, the overall dysfunction of oxidative phosphorylation, which contrasts with the pathways noted in schizophrenia, together with the differential expression and phosphorylation of a number of synaptic proteins, may warrant further Imatinib Mesylate 220127-57-1 investigation regarding these particular targets. Data reviewed here must be combined with information obtained from preclinical models.25,37,80-95 These

have the advantage of showing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical fewer confounding factors than human samples. Their limited biomechanical range must be noted, since not all features of a complex human disease such as MDD can be considered. Omics technologies, particularly metabolomics, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical can also be employed in the development of innovative medications, which are urgently needed.96 With regards to biological markers of depression, the findings are still preliminary.97

In contrast to what was expected, the identification of such biomarkers seems to be more complex than anticipated.98-100 An example is the recent withdrawal of VeriPsych, which was the only commercially available test biomarker for a Wortmannin order psychiatric condition. Hie Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical molecular overlap among psychiatric disorders makes the task of developing diagnostic tools very challenging. MDD patients who present with similar symptoms may have completely distinct biochemical signatures: some may have become depressed due Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to immune system-related dysfunctions, while others may have had their energy metabolism affected. Additionally, the different biological factors unrelated to

the disease, such as cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption, must be taken into account carefully. Among the most wanted biomarkers Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are those associated with the prediction of a successful drug response. MDD treatment is lengthy, and after several weeks, about 40% of patients do not respond to current medications. The formula “one treatment suits them all” does not fit. Biomarkers to identify subgroups of patients and predict therapeutic response are needed to achieve higher successful treatment rates. Hence, the identification of treatment biomarkers may enhance translational and personalized medicine strategies, which in turn can shape the future for an improved quality of Brefeldin_A life of MDD patients. Acknowledgments The author declares no conflict of interest and thanks Prof Chris Turck from the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Prof Andrea Schmitt from the Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy of the LMU, and Prof Wagner Gattaz from the Institute of Psychiatry of the University of Sao Paulo. The author is funded by FAPESP (Sao Paulo Research Foundation, grant 2013/08711-3).