The sequence of the complete TG2 gene obtained from the human intestinal epithelial cell line Caco-2 published by us in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) database [4], codifies for a protein of 687 amino acids long. TG2 acts as a monomer and has two closely located binding regions, one for Ca2+ and one for GTP, as TG2 also has GTPase activity. TG2 is expressed ubiquitously and has multiple physiological functions in processes such as blood clotting, wound healing, cell adhesion, cell signalling and apoptosis, among others [1–3]. TG2 has also been associated with pathological conditions, mainly inflammatory diseases click here such as encephalomyelitis and inflammatory myopathies, and neurodegenerative

disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases, as well as various types of cancer [5–7]. TG2 is involved at different molecular levels in the pathological processes of these disorders, associated mainly with protein cross-linking or deamidation, as well

as regulation of apoptosis. In particular, TG2 plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of coeliac disease (CD), because it is able to deamidate glutamine residues present in toxic proteins from wheat and related cereals. The deamidation of glutamine at selective positions leads to higher-affinity learn more binding of deamidated peptides to human leucocyte antigen (HLA) proteins encoded by the CD predisposing alleles DQ2 (A1*0501, B1*0201) and DQ8 (A1*0301, B1*0302), and also to a higher gliadin-specific T cell stimulation [8–10]. The TG2 gene is regulated by the canonical nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway in several cell lines, and it has been reported that in cancer and microglial cells TG2 can activate NF-κB

by blocking the inhibitor function of IκBα via polymer formation [11]. Consequently, there is a complex cross-regulation between TG2 activity and the NF-κB pathway, a mechanistic link that can be observed in inflammation and cancer. TG2 expression in human liver cells [12], intestinal epithelial cells [13] and however rat small intestine cells [14] can be induced by proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interferon (IFN)-γ, thus amplifying the inflammatory cascade. Therefore, the development of specific TG2 inhibitors with reduced in-vivo toxicity could represent a novel therapeutic approach with the aim of modulating TG2 activity and reduce, or even abolish, the disease processes where the enzyme activity is dysregulated [15]. To this end, more detailed information about the biology and molecular regulation of the TG2 gene in inflammatory settings is needed. In this study, we evaluated the regulation of the TG2 expression by proinflammatory cytokines in different cell lines and particularly in the intestinal mucosa. We found that IFN-γ is the most potent inducer of TG2 expression, and acts synergistically with TNF-α.