Conversely, 14 days of “”nibbling”" (i.e., 10 meals per day) led to small decreases in serum lipids such as serum phospholipids, esterified fatty acids, and cholesterol [57]. It is important to

point out that this study only descriptively examined changes selleckchem within the individual and no statistical analyses were made between or amongst the participants [57]. Other studies using obese [58] and non-obese [59] subjects also reported significant improvements in total cholesterol when an isocaloric amount of food was ingested in eight meals vs. one meal [58] and 17 snacks vs. 3 normal meals [59]. In a cross-sectional study which included 6,890 men and 7,776 women between the ages of 45-75 years, it was reported that the mean concentrations of both total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol significantly decreased with increased meal frequency in the general CT99021 population, even after adjusting for possible confounding variables such as obesity, age, physical activity, and dietary intake [25]. Specifically, after adjusting for confounding variables, the mean total and LDL cholesterol concentrations were ~5% lower in the individuals that ate more than six times a day as opposed to those only eating once or twice per day [25]. Similarly, Edelstein and colleagues [60]

reported that in 2,034 men and women aged 50-89, the individuals that ate greater than or equal to four times per day had significantly lower total cholesterol than those who ate only one to two meals per day. Equally important, LDL concentrations were also lower in those who ate with greater

frequency [60]. A more recent study examined the influence of meal frequency on a variety of health markers in humans [45]. Stote et al. [45] compared the effects of consuming either three traditional meals (i.e., breakfast, lunch, and dinner) or one large meal on markers of health. The study was a randomized, crossover study in which each participant was subjected to both meal frequency interventions for eight weeks with an 11 Thymidylate synthase week washout period between interventions [45]. All of the study participants ingested an amount of calories needed to maintain body weight, regardless if they consumed the calories in either one or three meals per day. The individuals who consumed only one meal per day had significant increases in blood pressure, and both total and LDL cholesterol [45]. In addition to improvements with lipoproteins, there is evidence that increasing meal frequency also exerts a positive effect on glucose kinetics. Gwinup et al., [5, 56] along with others [13], have reported that “”nibbling”" or increased meal frequency improved glucose tolerance. Specifically, when participants were administered 4 smaller meals, administered in 40 minute intervals, as opposed to one large meal of equal energy density, lower glucose and insulin secretion were observed [61].