4.2. Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose and Opportunistic HedonismThe construction of this stage is based on Kohlberg’s [17, 22] Stage sellekchem 2: Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange and Loevinger’s [23] concept of opportunistic hedonism. People at this stage tend to act with an instrumental purpose to serve their own interests, and they are often Machiavellian in getting what they want. On the other hand, equal exchanges are regarded as fair and acceptable so long as these acts of exchange serve to meet their own needs and interests. 4.2.1. Altruism and Human Relationships (1) Instrumental Purpose ��Acts are usually regarded as instrumental means to serve one’s needs and interests. For instance, people at this stage tend to help others who are in desperate situation because they expect others to do the same for them someday.
On the other hand, if the situation does not clearly indicate that such help would bring them more benefits than cost to the actor in the long run, then the actor would stick to the rule ��mind your own business�� or ��let things drift if they do not affect one personally,�� and he/she would not act to help the victims.(2) Significant Others ��People at this stage tend to regard those who are useful to them in the long run and those who would benefit them in one way or another to be their significant others. Parents, spouse, son/daughter, good friends, siblings, and close relatives are examples of significant others. They would act altruistically to these people but not to others. In other words, reciprocal altruism is their guiding principle.
(3) Opportunistic Hedonism ��People at this stage also believe that ��life is a zero-sum game; what one person gains, someone else has to lose�� [23, page 17]. It is of course better to gain for oneself and to let others lose. To put it in an extreme form, it means that it is better for others to die and for me to live, if necessary. In other words, they are Machiavellian in maintaining their survival and getting what they want. That is, in order to survive or to get what they want, they would consider using any means, whether the means is legitimate or not. In addition, ��work is perceived as onerous. The good life is the easy life with lots of money and nice things�� [23, page 17]. The idea is that one should try to get a lot just by paying little or no effort.
Generally speaking, people at this stage claim as much rights as they can but tend to bear as little responsibilities as possible. In other words, they act Brefeldin_A or survive by the principle of opportunistic hedonism.4.2.2. Justice: Principles for Resolving Interpersonal Conflicts (1) Equal Exchange ��People at this stage understand that other people also have similar needs and interests as themselves and therefore they regard equal exchange, fair deal, or reciprocally altruistic behavior as the right act.