Ampicillin concentrations varied from 5 μg mL-1 to 4500 μg mL-1. Test of XylS expression levels using a synthetic operon and luciferase assay XylS amounts could be measured more directly check details via luciferase activity in all constructs based on

pFS7. Luciferase activity was measured using the Luciferase Assay System from Promega, according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The luminometer used was a GloMax 20/20 (Promega). Strains were grown as described above. RNA isolation, cDNA synthesis and qRT-PCR Transcript amounts were determined by two-step quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). RNAqueous (Ambion) was used for total RNA isolation. Isolated RNA was treated with Turbo DNAse (Ambion) and reverse transcription was performed using a first-strand cDNA synthesis kit with random pd(N)6 primers (Amersham Biosciences). PCR was carried out in the presence of Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems) using a 7500 Real Time PCR system (Applied Biosystems).

During PCR samples were heated to 95°C for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles of amplification (95°C for 15 s; 60°C for 1 min). Results were analysed by 7500 system Fludarabine ic50 software v1.3 using the 2-∆∆CT method [39]. Primers were designed using Primer Express software (Applied Biosystems). For xylS primers 5′-TGTTATCATCTGCAAATAATACTCAAAGG-3′ and 5′-GCCCGGCGCAAAATAGT-3′ were used. 16S rRNA was used as endogenous control with the primer pair 5′-ATTGACGTTACCCGCAGAAGAA-3′ and 5′-GCTTGCACCCTCCGTATTACC-3′. Protein analysis by SDS-PAGE For SDS-PAGE analysis cells were grown in a volume of 25 mL. Cultures containing plasmid pET16b.xylS were induced with 0.5 mM IPTG or grown in the absence

of inducer. After centrifugation the pellets were washed in 0.9% NaCl. 100 mg pellet (wet weight) were resuspended in 0.5 mL lysis buffer (50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0, 20% sucrose), 1 mg lysozyme and 62.5 U mL-1 benzonase nuclease (Sigma) were added and samples were left with shaking at these room temperature for 2 hours. After centrifugation (13.000 rpm, 8 min) the supernatant was used as soluble fraction, while the pellet was resuspended in 0.5 mL SDS-PAGE running buffer, giving the insoluble fraction. Protein gels were run under denaturing conditions using ClearPAGE 10% gels and ClearPAGE SDS-R Run buffer (C.B.S. Scientific) followed by staining with Coomassie Brilliant blue R-250 (Merck). References 1. Brautaset T, Lale R, Valla S: Positively regulated bacterial expression systems. Microb Biotechnol 2009, 2:15–30.PubMedCrossRef 2. Mergulhão FJM, Monteiro GA, Cabral JMS, Taipa MA: Design of bacterial vector systems for the production of Thiazovivin price recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli. Microbiol Biotechnol 2004, 14:1–14. 3. Ramos JL, Marques S, Timmis KN: Transcriptional control of the Pseudomonas TOL plasmid catabolic operons is achieved through an interplay of host factors and plasmid-encoded regulators.

Table 1 Characteristics of studied groups including anthropometric traits, dental status, and bone mineral density (BMD)   Tooth wear patients (n = 50) Controls (n = 20) P values Age (years) 47.5 ± 5 46.5 ± 6 NS Female/male ratio 16/34 8/12   Number of teeth (mean; range) 23 (14–28) 27 (26–28) NS Tooth Wear Index (TWI) 2.3 ± 0.5 0.8 ± 0.4 <0.001 Height (cm) 173.5 ± 7.2 175.0 ± 11.1 NS Wright (kg) 79.2 ± 9.8 80.4 ± 11.8 NS Body mass index CX-6258 price (BMI) 26.8 ± 3.9 26.2 ± 2.7 NS Women   BMD femur [g/cm2] 0.93 ± 0.12 0.97 ± 0.13 NS   T-score for BMD femur −0.45 ± 0.96 −0.17 ± 1.21 NS   Z-score for BMD femur 0.04 ± 1.13 0.22 ± 1.01 NS   BMD spine [g/cm2]

1.08 ± 0.16 1.23 ± 0.22 0.02   T-score for BMD spine −0.93 ± 1.33 0.24 ± 1.97 0.02   Z-score for BMD spine −0.60 ± 1.59 0.42 ± 1.73 <0.001 Men   BMD femur [g/cm2] 1.00 ± 0.12 1.02 ± 0.16 NS   T-score for BMD femur −0.52 ± 0.89 −0.35 ± 1.24 NS   Z-score for BMD femur −0.15 ± 0.82 −0.04 ± 1.18 NS   BMD spine [g/cm2] 1.12 ± 0.11 1.21 ± 0.14 0.02   T-score for BMD spine −0.92 ± 0.96 −0.08 ± 1.08 0.02 selleck compound   Z-score for BMD spine −1.08 ± 0.96 −0.27 ± 1.01 <0.001 Mean ± SD are

shown NS not statistically significant Table 2 Dietary intakes of calcium, zinc, copper, phosphates, and vitamin D in studied subjects   Tooth wear patients (n = 50) Controls (n = 20) P values Daily amount % of RDI Daily amount % of RDI Calcium (mg) 762.9 ± 279.9 94 730.8 ± 269.2 91 NS Zinc (mg) 14.03 ± 4.9 111 11.4 ± 2.8 91 0.05 Copper (mg) 1.57 ± 0.4 69 1.4 ± 0.3 60 NS Phosphorus (mg) 1,585 ± 521 250 1,368 ± 240 210 NS Vitamin D (μg) 4.78 ± 4.5   3.21 ± 1.8   NS Mean values ± SD and % of recommended oxyclozanide daily intakes (RDIs) are shown NS denote not statistically significant

differences The analysis of biopsies showed selleck kinase inhibitor difference in copper amount in the enamel between the groups. No correlation between enamel copper and the degree of tooth wear was observed, however, significant difference was found in Cu content in the enamel between first and second levels of wear (p = 0.04). Tooth wear patients had significantly decreased copper content in comparison to controls despite normal salivary and serum concentrations of this element in the two groups (Table 3). Salivary concentrations of calcium, zinc, and copper were similar in patients and controls. There were no differences in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, PTH activity, or bone formation marker (osteocalcin) between the two groups. Table 3 Comparison of calcium, zinc, and copper contents in enamel bioptates, saliva; serum concentrations of the elements, and serum levels of hydroxyvitamin D, PTH, and bone formation marker (mean values ± SD are given)   Tooth wear patients (n = 50) Controls (n = 20) P values Enamel   Ca [mg/L] 1.884 ± 1.382 1.853 ± 1.241 NS   Zn [mg/L] 0.142 ± 0.041 0.084 ± 0.022 0.05   Cu [μg/L] 19.861 ± 13.171 36.673 ± 22.

The C. albicans sur7Δ mutant has an abnormal response to induction of filamentation and hyphal cells are markedly defective in plasma membrane structure An important virulence attribute in

C. albicans is the ability to switch between yeast, pseudohyphal, and filamentous forms [25–27]. When spotted onto M199 agar, hyphal structures were formed from each colony (Fig. 4A). However, the extent of filamentation was reduced in the sur7Δ null mutant compared to DAY185 and the SUR7 complemented strain. Similar results were observed when grown on Spider agar medium at 37°C (Fig. 4A). When BSA agar plates were incubated for an extended period of time, filamentous structures emerged from the edge of each colony except in the sur7Δ null mutant (Fig. 4A). This reduced filamentation in response to inducing conditions was also seen on solid media containing Brigatinib fetal calf serum (Fig. 4A). In Doramapimod ic50 liquid media (YPD supplemented with 10% FCS, high glucose D-MEM with 10% FCS, or RPMI-1640), time of germination and the extent of filament elongation of the C. albicans sur7Δ mutant were grossly similar to the wild-type and SUR7 complemented strains (data not shown). However, when grown in weak hyphal-inducing liquid Spider medium, a population of yeast cells and hyphae with aberrant selleck products morphology and branching was observed (Fig. 4B). Figure 4 Filamentation assays on various media.

(A) Overnight cultures were spotted onto weak-inducing media such as M199 agar plates, Spider agar, and BSA plates, and monitored daily. Overnight cultures were also spotted onto YPD containing 10% (v/v) fetal calf serum (FCS), a strong inducer of filamentation. Representative figures at the indicated times and incubation temperatures are shown. (B) Filamentation was also assayed in liquid media. Inoculums of 5 × 106 cells ml-1 were incubated at 37°C with constant shaking at 200 rpm. The time of germination, extent of elongation,

and overall ZD1839 order hyphal morphology were observed and compared between each strain at given time points using standard light microscopy. Results from growth in weak-inducing medium (Spider medium) are shown here at 2 and 4 hours where aberrant branching is evident at the latter timepoint. Standard light microscopy was performed using a 60× and 40× objective for the 2 and 4 hour timepoint, respectively. Next, structures of the filamentous form were compared using light microscopy. After 24 hours of growth, the wild-type (DAY185; Table 1) and SUR7 complemented strains produced mature, elongated hyphal cells with clear septa, whereas the sur7Δ null mutant produced irregularly shaped hyphae with obvious intracellular invaginations (Fig. 5A). Thin-section electron microscopy demonstrated subcellular structures in the filaments formed by the sur7Δ null mutant strain (Fig.

The k value (0.03) of LFP-C is three times higher than that of magnetite nanoparticles (0.009). Considering the difference in the particle sizes, we can conclude that LFP-C has this website much higher catalytic activity than magnetite. selleck Figure 2 Degradation behavior and kinetic analysis. (a) Degradation behavior of R6G by the magnetite nanoparticles and the LFP-C catalysts. (b) Kinetic

analysis of the degradation curves. The concentrations of the LFP-H and H2O2 (30%) were 3 g/L of and 6 mL/L, respectively, and pH of the solution was 7. Morphology and catalytic activity of the as-synthesized LFP-H As shown in Figure 1b,c, LFP-C has irregular morphology and big particle size, which suggests that the catalytic performance of LFP might be improved by adjusting its morphology and particle size. Therefore, we tried to synthesize LFP with regular morphologies and bigger specific surface area using a hydrothermal method [27]. We observed that higher heating rate is crucial for the formation of regular microcrystals. When the temperature of the autoclave was increased from room temperature to 220°C with a heating rate of (approximately 4°C/min), only irregular LFP particles were created [Additional file 1: Figure S1a,b]. Even though the heating duration was increased to 24 h at 220°C, no significant improvement in the morphologies was observed. However, when

the heating rate was dramatically increased by inserting an autoclave into selleck chemicals a pre-heated oven maintained at 220°C,

regular LFP particles with a rhombus-like plate morphologies were prepared (Figure 3, only hereafter, the particles are expressed as LFP-H). The LFP particles had thicknesses of 200 to 500 nm and edge lengths of 2 to 4 μm. The HRTEM image and the SAED pattern indicate a good crystallinity of the LFP-H (Figure 3c). The XRD pattern reveals that LFP-H particles are triphylite (JCPDS card no. 00-040-1499) without any observable impurities (Figure 3d). Figure 3 FESEM, HRTEM, SAED, and XRD patterns. (a, b) FESEM images, (c) HRTEM image and the SAED pattern, and (d) XRD pattern of the as-prepared LFP-H particles. When the catalytic degradation experiments of R6G using the fabricated LFP-H particles were carried out, we observed that the activity of the as-synthesized LFP-H is so high that R6G is completely decomposed in a few min [Additional file 1: Figure S2, the experimental condition was the same with Figure 2]. As a result, the degradation curve cannot be measured accurately, and thus, the concentration of the catalyst and hydrogen peroxide was decreased to 1 g/L, and 1 mL/L, respectively, which is beneficial to reduce the cost of the degradation process. Even at this condition, the LFP-H exhibited a degradation efficiency of 87.8% for R6G. In comparison, magnetite nanoparticles and LFP-C showed degradation efficiencies of only 6.8% and 39.3%, respectively (Figure 4a).

PLoS One 2012, 7:e46884.PubMedCrossRef

45. Hagiwara A, Imai N, Nakashima H, Toda Y, Kawabe M, Furukawa F, Delves-Broughton J, Yasuhara K, Hayashi S-M: A 90-day oral toxicity study of nisin A, an anti-microbial peptide derived from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis , in F344 rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2010, 48:2421–2428.PubMedCrossRef 46. Kuipers OP, Beerthuyzen MM, Siezen RJ, De Vos WM: Characterization of the nisin gene cluster nisABTCIPR of Lactococcus H 89 solubility dmso lactis . Requirement of expression of the nisA and nisI genes for development of immunity. Eur J Biochem 1993, 216:281–291.PubMedCrossRef Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions AC designed experiments, carried out nisin purification, antimicrobial activity bioassays, MIC assays and inoculum preparation and drafted the manuscript. PGC conducted and provided mouse model analysis. DF contributed to the selleck conduct of experiments and reviewing the manuscript. PDC, CH and RPR conceived the study and participated in its design and implementation and reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Escherichia coli is one of the most frequent causes of diarrhea in children in developing countries. However, characterization of truly diarrheagenic

groups or strains can be a complex task because this species is one of the first colonizers of the human gut. Moreover, wild strains exhibit great genetic plasticity and heterogeneity [1]. Diffusely adherent Escherichia coli have been considered a diarrheagenic group of E. coli (DEC). They are characterized by the diffuse adherence pattern on cultured epithelial cells HeLa or HEp-2 [2]. Approximately 75% of DAEC harbor adhesins from the Afa/Dr family, responsible for this adherence phenotype [3]. Since buy BI 10773 Germani et al.[4] demonstrated that,

among DAEC strains, only those that were positive to daaC probe – that recognize a conserved region from Afa/Dr adhesins operons – were found in higher frequency in diarrheic patients than asymptomatic controls, much attention has been given to DAEC strains possessing Afa/Dr adhesins. The adhesins of Afa/Dr family have been implicated in DAEC pathogenesis. They include Galactosylceramidase adhesins found in uropathogenic strains, like the Dr adhesin, in addition to AfaE-I, AfaE-II, AfaE-III, AfaE-V and F1845, which occur in diarrheagenic DAEC strains [5]. They recognize DAF (Decay Accelerating factor, CD55) and some of them also recognize CEACAMs (CEA-related molecules) as receptors [3]. The receptor is recruited around the bacteria after binding to the host cell [6, 7]. The binding of strains expressing F1845 or Dr adhesin can promote the dismantling of the actin network in intestinal cells, causing elongation of microvilli [8, 9] and redistribution of cytoskeleton-associated proteins in HeLa cells [10].

32 ± 0.14% vs. Zfx -siRNA 15.93 ± 0.77%, P = 0.001). These results indicate that Zfx expression is a determinant of human brain glioma U251 cell apoptosis. Figure 9 Knock down of Zfx in human malignant cell line U251

increased cell apoptosis. (A) Cell death was determined by Annexin V staining and flow cytometry. (B) Zfx-siRNA cultures showed a significant increase in buy Belinostat apoptosis compared with NC (P = 0.001; P < 0.05). 4. Discussion Recent research shows that Zfx is important for tumorigenesis. Zfx plays a pivotal role in embryonic stem cells and in hematopoietic stem cells. A recent study by Galan Caridad and his colleagues [12] showed that Zfx, is a shared transcriptional regulator of ESC and HSC, suggesting VEGFR inhibitor a common genetic basis of self-renewal

in embryonic and adult stem cells. Previous work by Gang Hu et al[13] based on a genome-wide siRNA screen in mouse embryonic stem cells found 148 genes whose down-regulation caused differentiation. The study further discovered that a unique module in the self-renewal transcription network is formed by Cnot3, Trim28, c-Myc, and Zfx. The transcriptional Mizoribine chemical structure targets of this module are enriched for genes involved in cell cycle, cell death, and cancer, and may represent novel anti-cancer targets. Recently, Arenzana et al also reported that Zfx is a novel transcriptional regulator of the B-cell lineage, and one of the common genetic control genes of both stem cell maintenance and lymphocyte homeostasis [14]. The present study discovered that Zfx expression is significantly higher in both Edoxaban Follicular Lymphoma (FL) and Diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and may be used for prognostic purposes in the clinic

[15]. Huang D [16] and others found that stem cell-related genes (including OCT-4, SOX-2, BMI-1, and ZFX) were upregulated in SP(side population) cells of human esophageal carcinoma 9706 cells compared with non-SP cells. To date, most research has focused on the expression and function of Zfx in embryonic stem cells and hematopoietic stem cells. In oncology researches, studies discovered that Zfx is abnormally expressed in prostate cancer, breast cancer, and leukemia [15]. However, its expression and function in human glioma had not been studied. Thus, we first explored the expression levels of Zfx mRNA in four glioma cell lines and found that it was expressed in all of them. We then detected the expression level of Zfx mRNA in glioma samples and in noncancerous brain tissue. Zfx was more highly expressed in glioma samples than in noncancerous brain tissue To some extent, we also found that Zfx expression increased with increasing tumor grade (however, this was not true for Grades III or IV). This may be due to the fact that Zfx mutations may occur at high frequency in high grade malignant gliomas.

Quantification of total glutathione revealed significant decreases in the group exposed to intermittent hypoxia

compared to SIH, demonstrating a reduced hepatic antioxidant defence in these animals. The increase in TBARS and decrease in endogenous antioxidants observed in the present study further promotes oxidative stress, contributing to aggravation of the liver tissue injury. This kind of pathological synergy is evidenced in experimental models of liver damage Ipatasertib induced by xenobiotic Quizartinib purchase agents that cause oxidative stress such as carbon tetrachloride and toluene [49, 50, 52, 54, 58], by surgical procedures such as ligation of the common bile duct [51, 53] or by thymoquinone [59]. Selleckchem GW786034 The increased nitric oxide metabolites nitrite and nitrate in the livers of IH-35 mice confirms findings by other authors, who demonstrated a significant increase of nitric oxide in animals exposed to IH simulating OSA (6 min/6 min) during 120 days [48], and to hypobaric hypoxia during 32 days [60]. The increase of NO, along with increased free radicals,

may generate nitrosative stress caused by the reaction products of these two substances, such as peroxide nitrite (OONO•) formed by the reaction between NO and O2 -• [11]. Much evidence indicates that oxidative and nitrosative stress have important roles in the complication of hypoxia [61]. OSA is usually accompanied by arterial hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, myocardial infarction and

stroke, which may be due to changes in nitric oxide production [62]. Veasey et al. had demonstrated irreversible basal forebrain nitrosative damage as a possible cause for residual sleepiness in OSA [63]. It is increasingly clear that IH is capable of causing liver tissue damage. This was here demonstrated by several lines of evidence: elevated circulating levels of liver enzymes, NO increase, damage to lipids and DNA, and reduced endogenous antioxidant defences. Further translational research is necessary to completely correlate these findings with the NASH pathology. Conclusions The present results suggest that a model of intermittent Tenofovir datasheet hypoxia for 35 days, simulating sleep apnoea, is useful to investigate liver injury by oxidative and nitrosative stress. Exposure to intermittent hypoxia during 21 days may be insufficient to produce hepatic damage. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Research Incentive Fund of the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA-FIPE), the Coordination of Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), the National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA). References 1. Dempsey JA, Veasey SC, Morgan BJ, O’Donnell CP: Pathophysiology of sleep apnea. Physiol Rev 2010, 90:47–112.PubMedCrossRef 2.

” We took the average lion pride as containing approximately five adults (Bauer et al. 2008). Of course, the numbers of prides to avoid inbreeding is itself an arbitrary number, not a genuine threshold.

(Simply, the fewer males who contribute genes to the next generation, the more inbred the population will be.) Moreover, the mean pride size is smaller in West and Central Africa, so the W-Arly-Pendjari population might also sensibly qualify as a stronghold. (We consider it a potential one.) From the data derived in the lion population assessment, as well as the World Database on Protected Areas (IUCN and WDPA 2010), we considered only those lions found within existing protected areas including those check details with IUCN categorization that allow hunting, to count towards the minimum viable population. The Tarangire lion area of Tanzania, has an estimated 700+ lions, but only

~200 in protected areas with IUCN categories I–VI. The rest are found in non-designated hunting areas that do not qualify towards stronghold status. Finally, only lion areas that are contained within LCUs having stable or increasing lion population trends as per the IUCN (2006a, b) are lion strongholds. The single exception to this rule is the Tsavo/Mkomazi lion area (Maasai Steppe LCU), which IUCN cites as having decreasing numbers. However, while lion numbers are declining this website outside of protected areas, we believe that lions within the parks are usually well protected and Ibrutinib in vitro in sufficient numbers to meet the criteria. This criterion also has its uncertainties, for in some parks—Kafue National Park in Zambia, for example—poaching of lion prey may be a cause of

concern for the lion’s long-term persistence. IUCN’s statement that the populations here are “stable” may be optimistic. Similarly, intense hunting outside protected areas can also affect those populations within the reserves (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998). These caveats accepted, the broad conclusions of our Table S1 remains: approximately 24,000 lions are in strongholds, about 4,000 in potential ones, but over 6,000 lions are in populations that have a very high risk of local extinction. Baf-A1 cost Conservation implications This is not the place to review management options for lions, the forces that threaten them, or savannahs in general. We restrict our comments to issues that arise from the mapping and assessments we have presented. (1) Lion numbers have declined precipitously in the last century. Given that many now live in small, isolated populations, this trend will continue. The situation in West Africa is particularly dire, with no large population remaining and lions now absent from many of the region’s national parks. Central Africa is different in that it has a very large contiguous lion area centred in the Central Africa Republic. In view of reported declines, it still does not qualify as a stronghold. Populations in these regions are genetically distinct (Antunes et al. 2008; Bertola et al. 2011).

melanogaster w1118 [23]. In our view, the

electron-dense Linsitinib order structures, which we revealed at the periphery of region 1 of the germarium, are presumably autophagosome encapsulated dying Wolbachia. A supporting line of evidence came from Wright and Barr [37], who on the basis of their observations on degenerating germaria cysts from mosquitoes Aedes scutellaris suggested that these structures represented degenerating Wolbachia. Cell fragments containing dying bacteria and autophagosomes and appearing as numerous smaller puncta in regions 2a/2b and 1 of the germarium may represent autophagy, not apoptosis. This appears plausible when recalling that AO stains not only apoptotic cells, also lysosomes [38]. TUNEL did not reveal such puncta in these regions. The possible role of the Wolbachia strain wMelPop in programmed cell death in region 2a/2b of the germarium Our current estimates of apoptosis in region 2a/2b of the germarium from the ovaries of the uninfected D. melanogaster w1118T raised on standard food are consistent with those reported elsewhere [14]. It is of interest that apoptosis level in the germaria decreased in D. melanogaster w1118T , but not XMU-MP-1 in D. melanogaster Canton ST after transfer to rich food. This may be indicative of differences in sensitivity to changes in food composition between different fly stocks. AO- and TUNEL staining demonstrated that the virulent Wolbachia strain wMelPop increased

the percentage of germaria containing apoptotic cells in D. melanogaster w1118 ovaries, while wMel strain was without such an effect. The effect of wMelPop on cystocytes in ovaries was observed in flies maintained on standard and rich food. Evidence was provided that the effect of Wolbachia on D. melanogaster is not general, nearly being rather specific to the pathogenic strain wMelPop. What pathways may be envisaged for the Wolbachia strain wMelPop caused increase in the number

of germaria whose cysts undergo apoptosis? On the one hand, bacteria may have a direct effect on germline cells (Figure 7A, B). In fact, one of 16 cyst cells becomes the oocyte, the other 15 differentiate into nurse cells in region 2a of the germarium. This is associated with transport of 15 centrioles into the pre-oocyte, where the microtubule-organizing center forms [39, 40]. Wolbachia distribution is dependent upon microtubules during oogenesis and bacteria show mislocalization in the egg chambers treated with colchicine which causes depolymerization of microtubules [41]. Evidence has been obtained indicating that Wolbachia are evenly distributed throughout the MK-8776 oocyte and nurse cells during stages 1-2 of oogenesis, becoming concentrated at the oocyte anterior during stages 3-6 [41]. With this in mind, the high levels of Wolbachia in cystocytes during differentiation into oocyte and nurse cells in region 2a of the germarium may possibly lead to impairment at the structural and/or molecular level, the cyst may undergo apoptosis as a consequence (Figure 7B).

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